Podcasting has been described as “a method of publishing files to the internet, often allowing users to subscribe to a feed and receive new files automatically by subscription, usually at no cost.” [1].

Podcasting is a relatively new phenomena becoming popular in late 2004. Some of the early adopters regard Podcasting as a democratising technology, allowing users to easily create and publish their own radio shows which can be easily accessed within the need for a broadcasting infrastructure. From a technical perspective, Podcasting is an application of the RSS 2.0 format [2]. RSS can be used to syndicate Web content, allowing Web resources to be automatically embedded in third party Web sites or processed by dedicated RSS viewers. The same approach is used by Podcasting, allowing audio files (typically in MP3 format) to be automatically processed by third party applications – however rather than embedding the content in Web pages, the audio files are transferred to a computer hard disk or to an MP3 player – such as an iPod.

The strength of Podcasting is the ease of use it provides rather than any radical new functionality. If, for example, you subscribe to a Podcast provided by the BBC, new episodes will appear automatically on your chosen device – you will not have to go to the BBC Web site to see if new files are available and then download them.

Note that providing MP3 files to be downloaded from Web sites is sometimes described as Podcasting, but the term strictly refers to automated distribution using RSS.

What Can Podcasting Be Used For?

There are several potential applications for Podcasting in an educational context:

• Maximising the impact of talks by allowing seminars, lectures, conference presentations, etc. to be listened to by a wider audience.
• Recording of talks allowing staff to easily access staff developments sessions and meetings as a revision aid, to catch up on missed lectures, etc.
• Automated conversion of text files, email messages, RSS feeds, etc. to MP3 format, allowing the content to be accessed on mobile MP3 players.
• Maximising the impact of talks by allowing seminars, lectures, conference presentations, etc. to be listened to by a wider audience.
• Recordings of meetings to provide access for people who could not attend.
• Enhancing the accessibility of talks to people with disabilities.

Possible Problems

Although there is much interest in the potential for Podcasting, there are potential problem areas which will need to be considered:

• Recording lectures, presentations, etc. may infringe copyright or undermine the business model for the copyright owners.
• Making recordings available to a wider audience could mean that comments could be taken out of context or speakers may feel inhibited when giving presentations.
• The technical quality of recordings may not be to the standard expected.
• Although appealing to the publisher, end users may not make use of the Podcasts.

It would be advisable to seek permission before making recordings or making recordings available as Podcasts.

Podcasting Software

Listening To Podcasts

It is advisable to gain experiences of Podcasting initially as a recipient, before seeking to create Podcasts. Details of Podcasting software is given at [3] and [4]. Note that support for Podcasts in iTunes v. 5 [5] has helped enhance the popularity of Podcasts. You should note that you do not need a portable MP3 player to listen to Podcasts – however the ability to listen to Podcasts while on the move is one of its strengths.

Creating Podcasts

When creating a Podcast you first need to create your MP3 (or similar) audio file. Many recording tools are available, such as the open source Audacity software [6]. You may also wish to make use of audio editing software to edit files, include sound effects, etc.

You will then need to create the RSS file which accompanies your audio file, enabling users to subscribe to your recording and automate the download. An increasing number of Podcasting authoring tools and Web services are being developed [7] .

References

1. Podcasting, Wikipedia,
   <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcasting>
2. RSS 2.0, Wikipedia,
   <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Really_Simple_Syndication>
3. iPodder Software,
   <http://www.ipodder.org/directory/4/ipodderSoftware>
4. iTunes – Podcasting,
   <http://www.apple.com/podcasting/>
5. Podcasting Software (Clients), Podcasting News,
   <http://www.podcastingnews.com/topics/Podcast_Software.html>
6. Audacity,
   <http://audacity.sourceforge.net/>
7. Podcasting Software (Publishing), Podcasting News,
   <http://www.podcastingnews.com/topics/Podcasting_Software.html>

This document provides an introduction to microformats, with a description of what microformats are, the benefits they can provide and examples of their usage. In addition the document discusses some of the limitations of microformats and provides advice on best practices for use of microformats.

What Are Microformats?

“Designed for humans first and machines second, microformats are a set of simple, open data formats built upon existing and widely adopted standards. Instead of throwing away what works today, microformats intend to solve simpler problems first by adapting to current behaviors and usage patterns (e.g. XHTML, blogging).” [1].

Microformats make use of existing HTML/XHTML markup: Typically the <span> and <div> elements and class attribute are used with agreed class name (such as vevent, dtstart and dtend to define an event and its start and end dates). Applications (including desktop applications, browser tools, harvesters, etc.) can then process this data.

Examples Of Microformats

Popular examples of microformats include:

• hCard: Markup for contact details such as name, address, email, phone no., etc. Browser tools such as Tails Export [2] allow hCard microformats in HTML pages to be added to desktop applications (e.g. MS Outlook).
• hCalendar: Markup for events such as event name, date and time, location, etc. Browser tools such as Tails Export and Google hCalendar [3] allow hCalendar microformats in HML pages to be added to desktop calendar applications (e.g. MS Outlook) and remote calendaring services such as Google Calendar.

An example which illustrates commercial takeup of the hCalendar microformat is Yahoo’s Upcoming service [4]. This service allows registered users to provide information about events. This information is stored in hCalendar format, allowing the information to be easily added to a local calendar tool.

Limitations Of Microformats

Microformats have been designed to make use of existing standards such as HTML. They have also been designed to be simple to use and exploit. However such simplicity means that microformats have limitations:

• Possible conflicts with the Semantic Web approach: The Semantic Web seeks to provide a Web of meaning based on a robust underlying architecture and standards such as RDF. Some people feel that the simplicity of microformats lacks the robustness promised by the Semantic Web.
• Governance: The definitions and ownership of microformats schemes (such as hCard and hCalendar) is governed by a small group of microformat enthusiasts.
• Early Adopters: There are not yet well-established patterns of usage, advice on best practices or advice for developers of authoring, viewing and validation tools.

Best Practices for Using Microformats

Despite their limitations microformats can provide benefits to the user community. However in order to maximise the benefits and minimise the risks associated with using microformats it is advisable to make use of appropriate best practices. These include:

• Getting it right from the start: Seek to ensure that microformats are used correctly. Ensure appropriate advice and training is available and that testing is carried out using a range of tools. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of microformats with your peers.
• Having a deployment strategy: Target use of microformats in appropriate areas. For example, simple scripts could allow microformats to be widely deployed, yet easily managed if the syntax changes.
• Risk management: Have a risk assessment and management plan which identifies possible limitations of microformats and plans in case changes are needed [5].

References

1. About Microformats, Microformats.org,
   <http://microformats.org/about/>
2. Tails Export: Overview, Firefox Addons,
   <https://addons.mozilla.org/firefox/2240/>
3. Google hCalendar,
   <http://greasemonkey.makedatamakesense.com/google_hcalendar/>
4. Upcoming, Yahoo!,
   <http://upcoming.yahoo.com/>
5. Risk Assessment For The IWMW 2006 Web Site, UKOLN,
   <http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/web-focus/events/workshops/webmaster-2006/risk-assessment/#microformats>

A wiki is a Web site that uses wiki software, allowing the easy creation and editing of any number of interlinked Web pages, using a simplified markup language or a WYSIWYG text editor, within the browser [1].

The key characteristics of typical wikis are:

• The ability to create and edit content within a Web environment without the need to download any special software.
• Use of a simple markup language which is designed to simplify the process of creating and editing documents.
• The ability to easily create and edit content, often without need for special privileges.

Wikipedia – The Best Known Wiki

Wikipedia is probably the largest and best-known example of a wiki – see <http://www.wikipedia.org/>.

Wikipedia is a good example of a wiki in which content is provided by contributors around the world.

Wikipedia appears to have succeeded in providing an environment and culture which has minimised the dangers of misuse. Details of the approaches taken on Wikipedia are given on the Wikimedia Web site [2].

What Can Wikis Be Used For?

Wikis can be used for a number of purposes:

• On public Web sites to enable end users to easily contribute information, such as the Science Museums Object Wiki [3].
• Wikis can support communities of practice. For example see the Museums Wiki site [4], the Blogging Libraries Wiki [5] and the AHA’s Archives Wiki [6].
• Wikis can be used to allow local residents to contribute to an official archive [7].

Wikis – The Pros And Cons

As described in [8] advantages of wikis may include (a) there is no need to install HTML authoring tools; (b) minimal training may be needed; (c) it can help develop a culture of sharing and working together (cf. open source); (d) it can be useful for joint working when there are agreed shared goals.

However, as described in [9] take-up of wikis in the public sector has been low in the public sector for various reasons: (a) the success of the Wikipedia may not necessarily be replicated elsewhere; (b) concerns that inappropriate content made be added to a wiki; (c) a collaborative wiki may suffer from a lack of a strong vision or leadership; (d) it can be ineffective when there is a lack of consensus; (e) it may be difficult for wikis to gain momentum; (f) there may be copyright and other legal issues regarding collaborative content and (g) there is not a standard wiki markup language. More recently Looseley and Roberto [10] have suggested ways of overcoming such barriers.

References

1. Wiki, Wikipedia, <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki>
2. Wikimedia principles, Wikimedia, <http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_principles>
3. Museums wiki, Wikia, <http://museums.wikia.com/>
4. Science Museum Object Wiki, Science Museum, <http://objectwiki.sciencemuseum.org.uk/>
5. Blogging Libraries Wiki, <http://www.blogwithoutalibrary.net/links/>
6. AHA’s Archives Wiki, <http://archiveswiki.historians.org/>
7. War Memorial Wiki, London Borough of Lewisham, <http://lewishamwarmemorials.wikidot.com/>
8. Making the Case for a Wiki, E. Tonkin, Ariadne 42, Jan. 2005, <http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue42/tonkin/>
9. Wiki or Won’t He? A Tale of Public Sector Wikis, M. Guy, Ariadne 49, Oct. 2006, <http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue49/guy/>
10. Museums & Wikis: Two Case Studies, R. Looseley and F. Roberto, MW 2009, <http://www.archimuse.com/mw2009/abstracts/prg_335001924.html>

Wikipedia defines a mashup as “a web application that combines data from more than one source into a single integrated tool” [1]. Many popular examples of mashups use the Google Map service to provide a location display of data taken from another source.

Technical Concepts

As illustrated in a video clip on “What Is A Mashup?” [2] from a programmer’s perspective a mashup is based on making use of APIs (application programmers interface). In a desktop PC environment, application programmers make use of operating system functions (e.g. drawing a shape on a screen, accessing a file on a hard disk drive, etc.) to make use of common functions within the application they are developing. A key characteristic of Web 2.0 is the notion of ‘the network as the platform’. APIs provided by Web-based services (such as services provided by companies such as Google and Yahoo) can similarly be used by programmers to build new services, based on popular functions the companies may provide. APIs are available for, for example, the Google Maps service and the del.icio.us social book marking service.

Creating Mashups

Many mashups can be created by simply providing data to Web-based services. As an example, the UK Web Focus list of events is available as an RSS feed as well as a plain HTML page [3]. The RSS feed includes simple location data of the form:

<geo:lat>51.752747</geo:lat>
<long>-1.267138</geo:long>

This RSS feed can be fed to mashup services, such as the Acme.com service, to provide a location map of the talks given by UK Web Focus, as illustrated.

Tools For The Developer

More sophisticated mashups will require programming expertise. The mashup illustrated which integrates photographs and videos from Flickr and YouTube for a wide range of UK museums was produced as a prototype by Mike Ellis, a software developer [5].

However tools are being developed which will allow mashups to be created by people who may not consider themselves to be software developers – the best known is Yahoo Pipes [6] which “provides a graphical user interface for building data mashups that aggregate web feeds, web pages, and other services, creating Web-based apps from various sources, and publishing those apps” [7].

Allowing Your Service To Be ‘Mashed Up’

Paul Walk commented that “The coolest thing to do with your data will be thought of by someone else” [8]. Mashups provide a good example of this concept: if you provide data which can be reused, this will allow others to develop richer services which you may not have the resources or expertise to develop. It can be useful, therefore, to seek to both provide structured data for use by others and to avoid software development if existing tools already exist. However you will still need to consider issues such as copyright and other legal issues and service sustainability.

References

1. Mashup (web application hybrid, Wikipedia,
   <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)>
2. What is A Mashup?, ZDNet,
   <http://news.zdnet.com/2422-13569_22-152729.html >
3. Forthcoming Events and Presentations, UK Web Focus, UKOLN,
   <http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/web-focus/events/>
4. Location of UK Web Focus Event, UKOLN,
   <http://www.acme.com/GeoRSS/?xmlsrc=http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/web-focus/events/presentations-2007.rss>
5. Mashed Museum Director,
   <http://www.mashedmuseum.org.uk/mm/museumdirectory/v3/>
6. Yahoo Pipes, Yahoo,
   <http://pipes.yahoo.com/pipes/>
7. Yahoo Pipes, Wikipedia,
   <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Pipes>
8. The coolest thing to do with your data will be thought of by someone else, Paul Walk, 23 July 2007,
   <http://blog.paulwalk.net/2007/07/23/>

What Is Web 2.0?

Web 2.0 is a term which is widely used to describe developments to the Web which provide an emphasis on use of the Web to provide collaborative and communications services, as opposed to a previous environment in which the Web was used primarily as a one-way publishing tool.

Web 2.0 also refers to a number of characteristics of this pattern of usage including a richer and easy-to-use user interface, delivery of services using the network, continual development to services, the social aspect of services and a culture of openness.

Criticisms Of Web 2.0

It should be acknowledged that the term ‘Web 2.0′ has its critics. Some dismiss the term as ‘marketing hype’ whilst others point out that the term implies a version change in the underlying Web technologies and some argue that the vision described by the term ‘Web 2.0′ is little different from the original vision of Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web.

In addition to these criticisms of the term ‘Web 2.0′ others have doubts concerning the sustainability of Web 2.0 services. The use of externally-hosted Web 2.0 services has risks that the service may not be sustainable, that its terms and conditions may inhibit or restrict the ways in which the service may be used and that social networking services may be inappropriate for use in a work context and may infringe personal space.

Using Web 2.0 Effectively

Although the criticisms have an element of truth, and it is also true that Web 2.0 can be used purely for its hype value, it is also true that many Web 2.0 services are very popular with large numbers of users. Organisations which seek to exploit the benefits of Web 2.0 should be mindful of the need to address their potential limitations such as the sustainability of the services; accessibility challenges; dangers of a lack of interoperability; privacy and legal concerns; etc.

Web 2.0 Technologies

The main technologies which are identified with the term ‘Web 2.0′ are:

Blogs

Typically Web pages provided in date order, with the most recent entry being displayed first. Blog tools produce RSS, which allows the content to be read via a variety of tools and devices.

Wikis

Simple collaborative Web-based authoring tools, which allow content to be created and maintained by groups without needing to master HTML or complex HTML authoring tools.

RSS

The Really Simple Syndication (RSS) format allows content to be automatically integrated in other Web sites or viewed in applications, such as RSS readers. A key feature of RSS readers is the automatic alerts for new content.

Podcasts

Podcasts are a type of RSS, in which the content which is syndicated is an audio file. New podcasts can be automatically embedded on portable MP3 players.

AJAX

The user interface of many Web 2.0 applications is based on a technology called AJAX, which can provide easier to use and more intuitive and responsive interfaces than could be deployed previously.

Web 2.0 Characteristics

The key characteristics of Web 2.0 services are:

Network as platform

Rather than having to install software locally, Web 2.0 services allow applications to be hosted on the network.

Always beta

Since Web 2.0 services are available on the network, they can be continually updated to enhance their usability and functionality.

Culture of openness

A key benefit of Web 2.0 is provided by allowing others to reuse your content and you to make use of others’ content. Creative Commons licences allow copyright owners to permit such reuse. This has particular benefits in the cultural heritage sector.

Tagging

Rather than having to rely on use of formal classification systems (which may not be meaningful to many users) tags can be created by users. The tags, which may also be meaningful to their peers, provide communal ways of accessing Web resources.

Embedding

Many examples of Web 2.0 services allow the content to be embedded in third party Web sites, blogs, etc.